ago it may be said that there were no Whitehouse, in search of the real drainage channels in Egypt. Two Moris, found a very remarkable sauceryears ago there were about one thou-shaped depression just south of the sand miles of such channels, some with Fayúm. We knew it could not have beds as wide as sixty feet and flowing been Moris, because in its bed we deep enough to carry cargo boats, others with beds only three or four feet wide. I am glad to say by these means large tracts in Lower Egypt which had been abandoned as totally ruined have now been restored to cultivation. The level of the lake in the Fayúm was reduced by thirteen feet between 1885 and 1893, and most of the inundated lands around it have been again dried.

I have already mentioned the cruel hardship of the corvée, the serf army of eighty-five thousand men who were employed in the canal clearances from January to July, nearly half the year. I believe this institution was as old as the Pharaohs, and it was not easy to abolish it. But of course it went sorely against our British grain. Little by little we got money to enable us to pay our labor. By an annual outlay of £400,000 this spring corvée has entirely ceased since 1889, and now the Egyptian laborer carries out these clearances in as free a manner as his brother in Middlesex, and gets paid for his work.

Having thus, to the best of our powers, utilized the water in the river flowing past us, we turned our attention to the storage of the surplus waters. Without some such storage it is impossible to increase the cultivation during the Low Nile. All the water is used up. During High Nile there is always a great volume escaping useless to the sea.

found no traces of a deposit of Nilotic mud, but it might be possible all the same to utilize it. The place was very carefully surveyed, and the project was estimated; but it was found that the cost of conveying the water into this basin would be so great that it was out of the question.

Attention was then turned to the possible sites where a stone dam might be built right across the river. The southern boundary of Egypt just now is near Wady Halfa, the second cataract. It is no use going to look for sites south of this, for the country is in the hands of the Mahdi and his fierce, dervish soldiers. North of this point, unquestionably the best site, perhaps the only possible site is where the Nile valley is traversed by a broad dyke of hard Syenite granite, in passing over which the river forms its first cataract just south of Assouan. It is here divided into several channels between rocky islands, and no channel is deep, so that it would be easy to divert the water from one after another, to lay bare the bed of the river, and lay the foundations of the dam in the open air. It wants no engineer to understand what an advantage this is.

And the great dam, such as was desigued by Mr. Willcocks, would have been a work worthy of the land of the Pyramids and Karnak -a great wall of squared granite blocks eighty - two feet thick at base, of a maximum height of one hundred and fifteen feet, a mile and a quarter long, pierced by sluices large enough to allow of the whole Nile at highest flood rushing through. The lake formed would have been one hundred and twenty miles long. Would this not have been a work of some majesty to commemorate forever the English rule in Egypt-a work one would have been proud to have had a hand in? But it was not The Egyptian saw no objection The money could have been

There are two ways in which the water may be stored either by throwing a dam right across the river and forming a great lake above it, or, if such a place can be found, by diverting the flood water into some suitable hollow, and drawing it off from there at the season of low supply, as done by Herodotus's celebrated Lake Maris. At one time there was a hope that such a storage basin might be found. An to be. American gentleman, named Mr. Cope to it.

found. But there was an insuperable Personally I accept the situation, for obstacle created when, on the Island of I never believed that it would be sac

Philæ, about 250 B.C., Ptolemy II. built a temple to Isis, on the site of older buildings long disappeared. Round this temple other buildings clustered, built by Greeks and Romans. Those of you who have not seen them, are probably familiar from pictures with the group of venerable buildings standing amidst palm-trees on the rocky island, and reflected in the waters below.

rificed. But yet as an engineer I must sigh over the lost opportunity for England of making such a splendid reservoir. And as a friend to Egypt, I sigh still more that the country will not have such a splendid supply of water as would enable Upper Egypt to have the full benefits now possessed by Lower Egypt, and Lower Egypt to expand and flourish.

The reduced scheme will, however, be a great boon to the country, and I trust will now be put in hand without delay.

In 1884, when the expedition up the Nile was first being considered, I was asked by the general officer commanding in Egypt, whether I thought there was any possibility of the Mahdi diverting the river in the Soudan, and depriving Egypt of its water. The late

Had Ptolemy only built his temple on the island of Elephantine, a few miles north, it would have been unaffected by the great dam, but Philæ is just to the south, or up-stream side of where the great dam must necessarily have come, and in consequence the islaud, with its temples, would be drowned for about six months every year. You probably remember the outburst of rage and indignation which the announcement of this proposed Sir Samuel Baker was in Cairo at the desecration created in London last sum-time, and I consulted him as to It was not to be tolerated that whether he knew of any place in the England should commit such vandal Nile valley where during highest flood is:n. In vain it was answered that the the water spills off to the right or left, place belonged to Egypt, not to En- towards the Red Sea or the Libyan gland that the Egyptian, who was Desert. He said he was sure there to gain so much by the dam, cared was no such place, and I then told the absolutely nothing about Ptolemy and general it would be impossible for the his temples that he was prepared to Mahdi to divert the Nile. I was sure pay a large price for a great work to that with his savages he would never benefit his country. What business dam up the low supply until its surface was it of England to forbid him? attained the height of flood supply, and if even then during flood there was no spill channel, Egypt was safe enough.

mer.

But what the Mahdi could not do, a civilized people could do. A government official has no business to talk politics, and the Royal Institution is no place for politics; but I may be allowed to point out an evident enough fact, that the civilized possessor of the Upper Nile valley holds Egypt in his grasp.

And it was not only the English who were indignant. For once, and only for once, I fear, since we occupied Egypt in 1882, was educated opinion in England and France at one. Both alike insisted that Phile should not be drowned. Nor must I admit had all the engineers that were interested in the question the full courage of their opinions. While they longed to build the dam, and lamented the perverse fate that had put Phile there, At this moment the Italians are on still they wished to spare Philæand the eastern edge of that valley -a natheir voice has prevailed. The majes- tion, I must say, who have been contic structure has been cut down twenty-sistently most friendly to us in Egypt. seven feet, and now will only be Supposing that they occupied Khareighty-eight feet high, and Phile will stand henceforth in a lake, but will never be drowned. LIVING AGE.

VOL. VI. 267

toum, the first thing they would naturally and very properly do would be to spread the waters of the Low Nile over

the Soudan; and no nation in Europe | one-sixth of the amount received in understands irrigation so well. And the corresponding mouth last year, and what then would become of Egypt's a large deficit is feared at the end of cotton crops? They could only be the quarter. The secretary of the secured by a series of the most costly Colonial and Continental Church Sodams over the river, and the fate of ciety reports that "every one is dePhile would surely be sealed. But pressed beyond description. There is more than this: a civilized nation on no labor for the poor because there is the Upper Nile would surely build reg-no money to pay for it. We are organulating sluices across the outlet of the izing relief parties to provide for the Victoria Nyanza, and control that great prevailing distress." A correspondent sea as Manchester controls Thirlemere. also states that the hungry and halfThis would probably be an easy oper-clad crowds are in a miserable condiation. Once done, the Nile supply |tion, and what they need most is warm would be in their hands; and if poor clothing for the biting month of March. little Egypt had the bad luck to be at The missionaries themselves are in an war with this people on the upper evil plight; as one of them pleads waters, they might flood them, or cut earnestly for an overcoat for himself, off their water supply at their pleasure. and clothes for his children. In a Is it not evident, then, that the Nile climate where the thermometer is often from the Victoria Nyanza to the Medi- below zero in the winter, such tales of terranean should be under one rule? hardship must elicit our warmest symThat time is perhaps far off. I con-pathy. clude what I have to say to-night, by Great as were the calamities and prigiving you the assurance, and I chal- vations that followed the great Maurilenge contradiction, that at no time [tian hurricane of April 29, 1892, they in the long history of Egypt under were, nevertheless, more endurable Pharaoh or Ptolemy, Roman or Arab than those of Newfoundland, for the or Turk, have the people of the coun- horrors of famine and starvation are try been so prosperous, or so justly ruled as during the last nine years.

From The Fortnightly Review. THE CRISIS IN NEWFOUNDLAND.

largely mitigated in a warm and tropical climate. The appeal to the charity of our philanthropists is great, and it is to be hoped that it will meet with a ready response. It is not long ago that a most destructive fire (July, 1892) destroyed a large portion of St. John's, the capital of Newfoundland, and the centre of government. But now the colonists are faced with the more permanent and terrible evils of bankruptcy.

IT is rarely that a British colony, having once achieved responsible government, contemplates a return to the conditions of a crown colony. Yet, from the latest information to hand, it would appear that such a return is It is well known that the prosperity within the range of practical politics in of Newfoundland has always depended Newfoundland. The first step would upon the successful prosecution of one be the appointment of a Royal Com- industry, viz., the fishing industry. mission in the island to inquire into Newfoundland cod is considered supethe existing and most deplorable state of affairs, and although the government is naturally averse to this, local opinion, now thoroughly on the alert, is largely in favor of it. For some time past the colonists have been face to face with a most serious commercial crisis. The revenue for January is only thirty thousand dollars, being only

rior to that caught off the coasts of Scotland, Norway, Iceland, and the Faroes. It is the task of the Newfoundland fishermen to provide fish for Roman Catholic Europeans, for Brazilians, and for the colonists of the West Indies, and the trade has fallen chiefly into the hands of a few capitalists.

The immediate cause of the present | niary straits, and Lord Grey, in his financial disasters is accounted for iu review of the colonial po ey of Lord some quarters by the action of the John Russell's administration, detrustees of the estate of a London mer- scribes the pauperizing effect of gifts chant who carried on a large business made by this country to Newfoundland in Newfoundland. It was his custom in 1846-1847 in relief of losses by fire, to maintain the fish exporters by ac- hurricanes, and the potatoe failure. cepting their drafts, but now the trus- At one time no less than one-fifth of tees of his property have refused to do the public revenue was absorbed in the this, and so the panic began, commu- necessary calls of charity and of poor nicating itself with lightning rapidity relief. There have been few wealthy to all classes. There are only two residents and very little taxable propbanks, “The Union" and "The Com-erty in the island to fall back upon in mercial," having in circulation bank- times of an acute crisis. Generally notes to the value of one million four speaking, the merchants who have hundred thousand dollars, but not sufficient in the way of specie to redeem them. On December 10 last they closed their doors, and a general panic set in. It is clear that a colony that is so easily upset cannot boast of a very stable equilibrium. The system of banking as it prevails in our colonies is not exactly that which finds favor with banking institutions in England, and perhaps it can hardly be expected that it should be similar. Land mortgages are a favorite kind of investment in the colonies, and in many instances colonial banks have ample security and a fair margin if only time be given for realizing. But, in a panic of a few days, the best calculations may be upset and bankers forced to close their doors.

made money out of the fishing industry have been non-resident monopolists living in London or Bristol. In addition to the natural uncertainty of the harvest of the sea, the colonists of Newfoundland have frequently been compelled to face complications arising from a foreign policy over which they have exercised no control. Indeed, from this cause no British colony has experienced greater vicissitudes.

Just one hundred years ago the Newfoundland merchants were setting forth before a committee of the House of Commons in 1793, the decline of the fisheries, but no sooner were their complaints uttered than a season of unexampled prosperity set in which lasted from 1793 to the peace of 1814. During this period our colonists, reIn colonies where there are many lieved from French and American strings to the colonist's bow, and many competition, pursued their trade unsources of agricultural and mineral challenged and untrammelled along the wealth, it is evident that recovery, whole seaboard, and princely fortunes either complete or partial, is merely a were amassed in a few years by people question of time. A certain number of who entered the trade without any capspeculative bubbles are pricked and ital. Some well-known houses netted unsound securities exposed, and there £20,000, £30,000 and even £60,000 per is a general clearing of the financial annum, but of this enormous profit atmosphere, not without some salutary scarcely a single penny was invested effects. But in a colony of one in- in the island of Newfoundland. The dustry only, and this a somewhat pre-merchants and speculators withdrew, carious one, as in Newfoundland, the and the peace with France and Amerdifficulties of banking must be excep-ica caused a complete revulsion of tionally embarrassing. For where, trade. A crisis arose and the large indeed, are the investments which population that was attracted to the promise ample security and quick realization ?

It is not the first time that Newfoundland has found herself in pecu

island in prosperous times were exposed to bankruptcy and ruin. Again there was a cry for help to the imperial government, and through the solic

The country, therefore, is

to

itations of the merchants, a select industry. committee of the House of Commous likely to remain "a wilderness forwas appointed to inquire into the state ever," because the French have a right of the trade of Newfoundland and into to fish upon the coast, and object to the situation of that settlement. The the slightest interference. He put the merchants could only suggest one of situation forcibly when he remarked, two alternatives, a bounty on the "The sovereignty of the island of fisheries to enable the British to com- Newfoundland is in the queen; but if pete on equal terms with the French this be the construction of the treaties and Americans, or the transportation far better is it to possess a right of wholesale of the population elsewhere. fishing four or five months in the year From the report it would appear that than to be sovereign of the soil. On there was little promise of agricultural the one hand we are crushed by the development, and no mention is made French bounties, and on the other the of possible mineral resources at that aggressions of the French on the westdate. The distress of Newfoundland ern shore prevent us from developing is of a periodic if not of a chronic one-half the island. I will mention order, and, in spite of recent efforts of one or two examples. A gentleman Newfoundland politicians to improve has a tract of land in which there are the position of their country, the inev-seams of coal, and he was forming a itable crash has come. Candid critics company to work it; but the moment affirm that for the past ten years there the discovery was made that the coal has been an annual deficit; that the deposit could only be reached from the civil service is extravagant, and there treaty coast, and that the grants would has been a somewhat premature ambi- be clothed with the conditions tion to construct a railway of five hun-which I have referred, then those who dred miles, which will inflict a burden were allowed to form the company deof fourteen million dollars upon a pop-clined to do so, and the land remains a ulation of two hundred thousand. waste. Again, a gentleman on the In addition to their troubles, the coast discovered a valuable lead-mine, Newfoundlanders have a special griev-and sank a shaft within about three ance in the "French Shore Right," hundred yards of the coast. No which is none the less irritating be- Frenchman had ever fished within the cause it has been going on for nearly neighborhood, but a remonstrance was two hundred years. Along seven hun- made by the French government that dred miles of the deeply indented New- the working of this mine might in some foundland coasts, from Cape St. John way affect the French fishery, and the to Cape Ray, the French claim a right working was discontinued. A factory of landing for the purpose of curing for the canning of lobsters was erected and drying their fish. In a discussion by an Englishman on the coast. The on Inter-British Trade and its Influence factory was ordered to be taken down, on the Unity of the Empire, before and he had no redress; yet, soon after, a meeting of the fellows of the Royal he had the mortification of witnessing a Colonial Institution (1890–91), Sir Wil- French factory erected under the inliam Whiteway, the present premier structions of a British officer, and in and attorney-general of the new gov-the very locality from which his own ernment, made some pertinent obser- property had been removed." vations. The French Shore Rights Apropos of the lobster trade, a curiinterfere practically with colonial de-ous natural history point was raised as velopment. The only access to the to whether a lobster was a "fish" or best mineral regions is on the western not, and an appeal was made to the coast, and here the French bar the scientific knowledge of Sir William way. No capitalist, he remarked, will Flower, who certainly excluded lobsters invest money under the present irri- from the class of fish according to the tating conditions of opening up a new modern naturalists' definition, although,