own feelings and sentiments, of the politeness, refinement, and knowledge, of their own times, with the details of the transactions of early ages, and attributed them to personages, who were supposed to be living, speaking, and acting, in a rude and remote antiquity. The consequence of this is a palpable departure from the costume (to use the painter's term) of the times, which they profess to describe and exhibit. They introduce arts and sciences, a degree of luxury, pomp, and splendour, which were then unknown. They represent the bonds of society, and comforts of life, in a more forward state than they really were; and above all, they ascribe to the actors in their fables, a certain refinement of sentiment, an artificial conduct, a finesse of manner, and studied decorum, which are the consequence, and the characters, of a much greater degree of polish, and a far more advanced state of society; in fact, they fall into a moral anachronism. There is one circumstance, in which, particularly, Apollonius and Virgil show themselves the progeny of a more refined age: and depart from the manners of the heroic times; I mean, their allowing to love such a mighty share in the fables, and predominant influence in the catastrophe of their poems; and still more, their giving such mi nute delineations of the passion abstractedly considered, and traced out to its secret operations in the human breast. The rank and preeminence, which are thus given to love, are not in the spirit of the heroic ages, but bespeak an age more refined, and advanced in civilization, and elegance. In Apollonius, for instance, there are much arrangement and dialogue, which would not disgrace the high polish and decorum of the French stage.In Homer, though the rape of Helen is the avowed cause of the Trojan war, yet love has small share in the action; and Paris and Helen are very subordinate figures in the picture. Indeed, avarice seems to have, at least, as much share as amorous gallantry, on the part of Paris, or wounded honour, and conjugal attachment, on the part of Menelaus.-It appears, that the adulterer carried off great treasures with the lady, Kuar” àμ' avry—and that the reluctance of the Trojans, particularly that of the court of Priam, to disgorge this wealth, was the great obstacle to an accommodation; while the desire of regaining it, seems to have contributed to the ardour of the Greeks, in prosecuting the war; at least, as much as the wrongs of Menelaus; for we find, in every negociation on the subject of restoring Helen, particular care is taken to mention the treasures.Even Briseis, the fair captive, whose loss produced the destructive wrath of Achilles, which caused innumerable woes to the Greeks-even she is little seen. -There are no details of the amorous feelings of the hero. He seems to be more agitated, by the keen sense of insult, and the feelings of wounded pride, than by any tender or fond attachment to his mistress. Briseis occupies but a few lines in the whole poem, though she furnishes occasion for the entire action of it. The hero's expressions of regard for her are energetic, indeed, but brief in the extreme; and are summed up in half a dozen werds. -So, Book I. 1. 167. The plain sincerity, and blunt unadorned conciseness, of these expres sions of regard, are highly characteristic of the roughness and simplicity of the heroic ages.-There are much warmth and sincerity, but no parade--no abstraction.-Hector and Telemachus are represented, as possessing feeling hearts, great mildness of disposition, and gentle ness of manners; yet, the reader must recollect the tone and expressions, in which the one speaks to his wife, the other to his mother, in the poems of Homer. With how little politeness, gallantry, or even common civility, they addressed the women, whom they most loved and valued! And this may serve to convince him, that amorous gallantry, refined compliments, and politeness, an enthusiastic deference to the fair sex, have not properly any place, in the pictures of the manners of the heroic ages. Αλλ' εις οικον ιούσα τα σαυτης εργα κομιζε, In the first book of the Odyssey, see 1. 345. Telemachus employs the very same expressions, to his mother; while he orders her, to retire to her apartment; and she submissively obeys his injunction. And the poet praises the young prince, as speaking prudently and properly, on the occasion. Η μεν θαμβήσασα παλιν οικον δε βιβηκεί Yet, Telemachus is represented, as adorned with every virtue, and, particularly, as a model of prudence, beyond his years. Women, in fact, in those ages, were considered as occupying a very inferior rank in society. They occur, in history and fable, as the unimportant objects of a transient desire, or the helpless victims of brutality and outrage; as creatures formed for the accommodation of man; as things rather to be possessed and enjoyed, than courted and admired. In those times of toil and warfare, strength was the great test of perfection, the great pledge of superiority. The people, in those ages, knew not any of the illusions of love. They regarded women as inferior beings, because they were weaker than themselves; and the young men, as soon as they had attained the age of virility, assumed a tone of superiority, even to their mothers. This is, every where, the natural sentiment of a rude age. Among the modern savages of America, whose manners and occupation much resemble those of the ancient warriors, in the fabulous times of Greece, love engrosses little of their thoughts. The attachment of the men to the females, is, comparatively speaking, but cold and slight; and they devolve, on the feebler sex, the laborious task of cultivating their land, and the menial office of attending on the warriors.-The Russians, too, who are still far behind the rest of the people of Europe, in civilization, think that women are destined by nature, to be placed in the humblest submission to them-they speak to them, in a tone of imperious superiority-they exact from them the most servile attention, and deference.-Rousseau, in his sketch of the manners of the inhabitants of the Pays de Vaud, gives a similar picture of the state of subordination, in which the females were held. Such manners are the natural result, as I have said, of rude unpolished feelings, which ascribe an extraordinary degree of superiority, to superior animal strength; and dispose the strong, to abuse their force, and employ it, to oppress the weak.' Vol. iii. p. 105. ART. VII.-A System of Chemistry. By Thomas Thomson, M. D. Lecturer on Chemistry in Edinburgh, 4 Vols. 8vo. 1. 16s. Boards. Robinsons. 1802. THE article of chemistry, in the Supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica, we have already spoken of with applause. It is the outline of the present work, which, in the volumes before us, is filled up with great ability and extent of information. The science of mineralogy, so far as it is connected with chemistry, is also included. Here, perhaps, our notice of this work might have ceased; but the work itself is of too great importance to be passed over cursorily, and the author too respectable to be dismissed in a manner so summary. A few novelties will attract our attention; and, with respect to the general plan, we have somewhat to blame, as well as much to commend. Of the arrangement, Dr. Thomson observes, that he can speak with more confidence, because one, in many respects similar, has been adopted by Fourcroy, in his late work.' Names, however, do not sanction error, or remove inconvenience; and it is necessary to consider the subject more particularly. It has been long since remarked, that science should be investigated by analysis, and taught by synthesis; that, in communicating our knowledge, we should begin with the simplest truths, and rise to the most intricate combinations. This method is, however, chiefly adapted to intellectual, not to natural science; and, in natural philosophy, we have always found the student much perplexed by the elements of the atomic system. In chemistry, we suspect, a similar inconvenience will arise. The tyro is told of simple bodies; but these are not the air we breathe, the river or spring without smell or taste, the plant we admire, or the earth we tread on. Sulphur and charcoal, he is probably acquainted with; but, that these are simple uncompounded bodies, will appear absurd, and, of oxygen, phosphorus, hydrogen, and azot, he can form no idea: and that the diamond is a simple substance must surpass common belief. What is air in the inexperienced student's view, if it be not the air we breathe? It is the same, and different: it eludes his senses; and its other properties, except that it is generally unfit for breathing, he cannot comprehend. We suspect, therefore, that this mode of teaching chemistry is a refinement without an adequate advantage; that it is adapted for the proficient, rather than the learner. The other method, that of analysis, takes up bodies as they appear to our senses. Something of salt the student knows, as culinary salt is necessarily familiar to him: acids are equally so; and the various earths, combustibles, &c. are constantly before him. He advances then, with little impediment, from particular to general properties; and will not feel great difficulty when he sees ammonia converted into different kinds of air, or the vitriolic acid become, by the loss of air only, a substance with which he has long been acquainted under the name of sulphur. In short, we have little hesitation in saying, that more inconvenience than advantage will probably result from this new plan. Dr. Thomson's introductory distinction, between the objects of natural history and natural philosophy, is peculiarly neat and correct; as well as the respective definitions of what are styled the mechanical philosophy and chemistry. A short history of chemistry, in its earliest period, is given, which it was the author's design to have continued; but he found that it would lead him too far. His historical accounts, however, of our knowledge respecting different bodies, prefixed to each head, are highly entertaining and interesting. The simple substances noticed, are, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, hydrogen, and azot. Next follow the metals, which are described with peculiar discrimination and accuracy. The article of iron, which has engaged so much of the chemist's attention, is very full and complete: that of antimony is also minute, and contains the substance of some late pharmaceutic remarks, noticed in our review of the Annales de Chimie. Twenty-two metals are mentioned; but the columbium occurs only in the fourth volume, as it was not known at an earlier period. One other metal, the palladium, was supposed to be discovered subsequent to the publication of these volumes. It appears, however, not to be a distinct metallic substance, for Mr. Hatchett has lately shown that it is platina, with a proportion of quicksilver. Whether the error were accidental or fraudulent, we know not: we suspect the former, since platina is generally amalgamated with quicksilver, to separate any gold that it may contain. In this operation some part of the latter metal may not have been wholly volatilised. In every arrangement, inconvenience must occur; and, even in our author's plan, he is obliged to speak of affinity before he has explained. it; and the student must be contented with a general and popular view of the subject, as its fuller detail occurs in a subse quent part of the work. Light and caloric are next considered; and these subjects are treated in a masterly compréhensive manner. We see nothing that is omitted, or that can with propriety be altered; and the tables annexed add greatly to the value of the work. Dr. Thomson mentions, under the former head, the opinion of heat and light repelling each other, without referring to the author to whom it was attributed in the Encyclopædia-Dr. Parr, of Exeter. We are not well acquainted with that gentleman's claims to the discovery, if such it be; but we remember, when reviewing the work in which it appeared, that it seemed wholly new, and singularly ingenious. We have since seen it attributed to other authors, who were certainly posterior in point of time, particularly Gren; but, previous to the publication of Gren's Chemistry, though subsequent to the Exeter Essays, some remarks of this kind were suggested by the chemical professor at Abo. With respect to the objection, that, if this theory were true, the light should, after some continuance of the luminous state, be exhausted, we cannot think it has any foundation: when the natural quantity is separated, the body is still permeable to other light, as well as to heat. The most perfect slag will con tinue luminous and hot, by means of the fire around. The system seems to relate only to bodies shining with light wholly their own, as coals, charcoal, candles, &c. The compound bodies are divided into primary and secondary compounds. Among the first are the alkalies and earths; and the latter are arranged in the classification we formerly recommended; viz. the alkaline earths follow the alkalies in the order of their resemblance, and the list closes with silica. Some remarks on this subject we shall select as a specimen. The fixed alkalies and earths, taken in the order in which they have been described in the preceding sections, constitute a regular series. The difference between the properties of potass and silica, which occupy the two extremities of this series, is very considerable; but the difference between the properties of any two contiguous bodies in the series is but small. Barytes, for instance, agrees with the fixed alkalies in so many particulars, that it might, without any impropriety, be arranged under the head of alkalies; and this has actually been done by Fourcroy. The same remark applies to stron tian. These two bodies agree with lime also so nearly that they have been arranged with it by almost all chemists. Again, if we compare lime and magnesia, we shall find them to correspond in the greater number of their properties. In like manner, magnesia corresponds with alumina; and the difference between alumina, yttria, glucina, and zirconia, is but small; while the correspondence between these last earths and silica is no less striking. Perhaps, therefore, in strict propriety, the fixed alkalies and earths ought to be comprehended together in one general class: But the division of them into alkalies and earths was made at an early period, before the properties of the bodies comprehended under them had |